QCan you discuss the word “cult”?

A: “Cult” entered English from the French word “culte,” which derived from the latin “cultus,” meaning “care or adoration,” the past participle of “colere,” “to cultivate.” The earliest sense of “cult” referred to formal religious veneration or worship, and its first known appearance in print was in 1617.

The sense of “cult” meaning “a system of religious beliefs and ritual” first appeared, to our knowledge, in the writings of religious reformer and colonist William Penn.

Penn was born in London in 1644. He spent much of his childhood studying, and he became interested in religion early in life. He wrote of a divine vision experienced at the age of 12, when, he said, “the Lord first appeared unto me.”

At 21, Penn committed himself to the largely unpopular Quakers and was imprisoned for a time in the Tower of London (where he wrote his famous “No Cross No Crown”) for his advocacy of his beliefs.

The first known use of the word “cult” to mean a particular form of religious worship appeared in Penn’s “An address to Protestants upon the present conjuncture” in 1679: “Let not every circumstantial difference or Variety of Cult be Nick-named a new Religion.” Penn of course went on to found the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, which became a refuge from persecution for Quakers and for other religious nonconformists.

In our own time, the word “cult” has acquired negative associations. It now usually refers to a religion that is generally regarded as unorthodox or spurious.

Q I would like to know the origins and meanings of the nautical words “tar” and “gob.”

A: “Tar” and “gob” are both terms used for sailors. We don’t know the origin of “gob,” which has usually been used to refer specifically to an enlisted man in the U.S. navy, though several explanations have been put forth. Some people think it evolved from a Chinese word, others think it came from a British use, but no one has ever been able to trace it back to a definite source. Like so many words whose origins lie in spoken language, the evidence of this word’s beginnings seems to have been washed away like writing in the sand. The earliest written record of “gob” meaning “sailor” dates only from 1915.

“Tar” in its “sailor” sense is a much older word than “gob,” dating back to the 17th century. It can be traced to “tarpaulin,” another word with the meaning “sailor.”

The original, and still usual, sense of “tarpaulin” is “a piece or sheet of waterproof canvas.” Because tarpaulins are much used on ships, the word eventually developed several specifically nautical senses. In one early sense, it was used to mean “a sailor’s hat made of tarpaulin.” A related term is “tarpaulin muster,” which means “a pooling of funds for common use, especially by seamen” – so called because such funds were formerly collected by having the crew toss their money into a tarpaulin.

These uses gave rise to the use of “tarpaulin” as a synonym of “sailor,” which in turn led to the shortened form “tar.”

Q What is the correct way to form the plurals and possessives of names ending in “tz,” such as Schwartz and Schultz?

A: This is a natural variation of the frequently asked question about words ending in “s.” When forming the plural of any word ending in “z,” you should always add “es.” This rule is the same as that governing “s” words. Proper names are treated just like common nouns.

We say “the Schultzes live in that house” just as we say “those dresses are on sale.”

Forming the possessive of such names is a bit more complicated.

As with words ending in “s,” the key consideration when forming the possessive of any word ending in “z” is pronunciation. When forming the possessive singular, most writers add an apostrophe and an “s” to the end of the word, as in “Ms. Schwartz’s car.”

However, in order to avoid the possible awkwardness of pronouncing the similar-sounding “z” and “s” together, it is acceptable simply to add an apostrophe after the “z,” as in Mr. Schultz’ hat.”

Whichever seems the better pattern to you, you should follow it consistently. When forming the possessive plural, however, simply add an apostrophe to the end of the plural noun, as in “the Schultzes’ house.” No need to make a choice in this situation.

This column was prepared by the editors of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition. Readers may send questions to Merriam-Webster’s Wordwatch, P.O. Box 281, 47 Federal St., Springfield, MA 01102.

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