A: While we often see and hear the word “bozo” applied to lackluster politicians, bad drivers, referees who make questionable calls, and a host of other unfortunate folks, we know very little about the origin of the word.

What we do know is this: “bozo” is an Americanism that was first recorded in writing in 1916, when it occurred in a sentence of dialogue, “That you, Bertie, you old bozo!” It was not glossed (that is, defined) within the context of the quote, so we can assume that it was known in spoken English before it appeared in written English.

Several theories as to the origin of “bozo” have been advanced: That it is an adaptation of the Afro-Hispanic dialect “bozal”; that “bozo” comes from the Italian “bozzo,” referring to a cuckold; that it’s an alteration of “hobo.” Many people assume it is derived from the name of the famous clown, but the history of the clown name has never been thoroughly documented. It seems that there has been more than one Bozo in the clown world. Bozo was introduced commercially in 1940 when Capitol Records began a series of children records using the name.

In 1949, Capitol hired an actor named Larry Harmon to create a Bozo character for television. Harmon bought the licensing rights to the name from Capitol in the early 1950’s and has been associated with Bozo the Clown ever since, most notably in a long-running children’s television show initiated by WGN-TV in Chicago in 1960. However, the original Bozo of the Capitol recordings seems to have been an actual circus clown named Edwin Cooper, who performed with Barnum and Bailey and Ringling Brothers. When he died in August 1961, at the age of 41, newspaper accounts claimed that both his father and grandfather also performed as Bozo, which would push the name back into the 19th century. But the truth of this assertion has never been documented.

Q I recently read an article in which the author referred to a particular actor’s final film as the actor’s “penultimate” film. My understanding is that “penultimate” means “next to last,” not “last,” so that an actor’s penultimate film should be his next to last film, not his final film. Am I right or is the author right about this? – S.L., Des Moines, Wash.

A: You are right. “Penultimate” does mean “next to the last.” It comes from the Latin “paene,” meaning “almost,” and “ultimus,” meaning “last.” The writer of the article you read is not alone, however, in using “penultimate” to mean “final” or “last.” This is clearly the sense of the word when a writer uses “penultimate” to modify a plural noun, as in “the penultimate days of the year.” We have a few examples of this kind of usage in our files. “Penultimate” may seem more attractive in such contexts to some writers (writers who aren’t aware of its established meaning) than “last” or “final” because they feel that it has a more impressive look and sound than the shorter words.

Sometimes it’s difficult to tell whether a writer is using “penultimate” to mean “next to the last” or “last.” In your own example, if you hadn’t known that the film referred to was the actor’s last, you might have thought that the writer was in fact referring to his next to the last film. If the “last” sense of “penultimate” ever becomes established in widespread use, that kind of confusion will probably be commonplace.

Q I’ve concluded that there is a lack of standardization regarding pronunciation of many English words. For example, the dictionary recommends that “prerogative” be pronounced as it’s spelled. But a number of people insist on saying the first syllable as “per.” Why is this? – D.L., Salina, Kans.

A: There is indeed a lack of standardization in many aspects of the way we speak, and, language being what it is, there always will be. With many words it is simply far easier to pronounce the term naturally than to struggle with a pronunciation that matches the spelling. When we are speaking rapidly, “prerogative” comes out sounding as you have described it. To pronounce the two “r” sounds in “prerogative” requires painstaking effort and a slowness which most of us find inconvenient. Therefore, even quite articulate people tend to ignore the first “r” sound, at least sometimes. In fact, the pronunciation with “per” has become common enough that it merits inclusion in our unabridged Webster’s Third New International Dictionary as a variant of “prerogative.” It is recorded there as a pronunciation that occurs in the speech of educated people but that many find unacceptable. A similar, but less often noticed, case is “surprise.” So many of us find it easier to say the word without the first “r” sound that it has become an accepted, standard variant pronunciation.

Q I know that there is a biblical origin for the term “Jacob’s ladder.” But isn’t the term associated with many nonbiblical items as well? -R.C., Madison, Wis.

A: You are correct in noting that “Jacob’s ladder” has a biblical origin. In the Old Testament, Jacob envisions in a dream a ladder that extends from earth to heaven. The ladder has often been seen as suggesting the ascent of the spirit after death. The term is sometimes used in a literal sense to describe something that elevates the spirit, bringing it closer to heaven or nirvana. More frequently, the phrase denotes objects that resemble a ladder. For example, a perennial herb related to phlox is called “Jacob’s ladder” because of the ladder-like arrangement of the leaves. An even more obvious relationship exists between the dream ladder and the clinging nautical rope ladder with wooden or iron rungs. This “Jacob’s ladder,” which is used for boarding, descends from the side of the vessel to the land and so must have been reminiscent of the ladder of Jacob’s dream, especially to sailors of long ago, whose only reading matter often was the Bible. Oddly enough, “Jacob’s ladder” has even been used to describe things as far removed from the biblical sense of the term as the form created between the hands by a string stretched across the fingers in a children’s game.

This column was prepared by the editors of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition.

Readers may send questions to Merriam-Webster’s Wordwatch, P.O. Box 281, 47 Federal St., Springfield, Mass. 01102.