Q When I was in college, a language professor told us that the words “shirt” and “skirt” were basically derived from the same Old English word, the “c” being pronounced hard or soft. Recently, while I was reading Shakespeare, the word “canker” was used to describe the death of a character. Is there a similar relationship between “canker” and “cancer”? – M. J., Rahway, N.J.

A: Pronunciation differs and develops over the course of history, and you have spotted two pair of words that are related. Their relationship, however, comes from two very different sources.

In the Anglo-Saxon period, there were over three centuries of contact between the Scandinavian Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons, leaving a permanent mark on our language. The language of the Scandinavians was closely related to Old English, being derived from a common Germanic source. Both languages had many words in common, but others had become differentiated by independent development in each language. The sound combination “sk” of the parent Germanic language had become “sh” (spelled “sc’) very early in Old English, but it kept its old value in the Scandinavian languages.

Our modern English “skirt” derives from Old Norse “skyrta,” which has many Germanic cognates. Among them was Old English “scyrte,” which has given us modern “shirt.” Although both the Scandinavian and Old English words survived with different uses in this case, some “sk” words, like “skill,” simply replaced their English “sc” counterparts.

“Canker” and “cancer,” as well as “chancre,” share a different relationship. Latin “cancer,” or its Old North French derivative “cancre,” is the source of our word “canker.”

“Cancer” itself was reborrowed from Latin in the 14th century with a soft “c,” Latin pronunciation being modified in England and losing the hard “c” before an “e” by that time. Meanwhile, in French, Latin “c” before “a” had become “ch” (pronounced “sh”) and yielded “chancre,” which English borrowed in the 17th century. We thus have three English words all going back to Latin “cancer,” and each showing the effects of the different vicissitudes of phonetic history.

Q I’m no expert on reptiles, but I’m pretty sure crocodiles really don’t cry. So where did we get a phrase like “crocodile tears”? – W. C., Dearborn, Mich.

A: You’re right, crocodiles don’t really cry. A person who is weeping “crocodile tears” is pretending to show anguish about something that he or she doesn’t really care about. The phrase derives from a myth that the crocodile emits sobs (or sounds similar to sobs) in an effort to lure prey into its grasp. Later, after the crocodile has finished devouring its victim, it continues to emit those sounds as though it is weeping in mourning for the prey. Literary references to weeping crocodiles date back as far as the 15th century.

Nowadays people can be accused of shedding “crocodile tears” whenever it is suspected that their expressed sorrow for something is hypocritical, as when an employee shows sadness that a colleague is retiring even though he may be hoping to take over the newly vacated position himself.

Q Where does the phrase “bite the bullet” come from? My guess is the military, though why anyone would actually bite a bullet is beyond me. Please explain. – M. C., Trenton, N.J.

A: You are half right in supposing that “bite the bullet” (and the earlier “bite on the bullet”) comes from the military. The phrase originated in military medical practices of the 19th century.

During the American Civil War, unsanitary conditions and poorly trained field surgeons were just two reasons that amputation was the most commonly performed operation for a wounded or gangrenous arm or leg. In the days before antiseptics, it was easier to remove the infected part than to stop the infection.

But the field surgeons didn’t have anesthesia, either – perhaps just a bit of whiskey, as in old westerns. To help the patient endure the pain of amputation, they would give him a bullet or some other hard object to bite down on, in much the way you might clench your fist while enduring a painful injection or tooth extraction.

From this literal biting of bullets arose the figurative sense “to enter with resignation upon a difficult or distressing course of action.” Medical practices have changed immeasurably, of course, but most everyone still has to “bite the bullet” on some occasions.

Q I came across the word “quondam” in a newspaper several months ago. I looked it up in the dictionary and found out that it means “former.” Can you tell me more about it? – M. K., Baltimore, Md.

A: The word “quondam” entered English in the 16th century. It comes from the Latin “quondam,” meaning “at one time, formerly.” We can trace it further to the Latin root word “quom,” meaning “when.” “Quondam” is a pretty rare word but it does pop up often enough to gain entry in some abridged dictionaries, and it appears in several of Shakespeare’s plays. Anyone looking for an unusual way of saying “former,” however, need not stop at “quondam.” The synonyms “whilom” and “ci-devant” are equally likely to confuse or mystify many readers. None of these words is archaic, yet their strange looks do give them an archaic quality. A more pedestrian alternative is “erstwhile,” which, although not rare, imparts an appealingly archaic flavor that “former” simply does not suggest.

This column was prepared by the editors of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition. Readers may send questions to Merriam-Webster’s Wordwatch, P.O. Box 281, 47 Federal St., Springfield, MA 01102.

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